Child Care
Among children ages 0-4 whose mothers were employed, 24 percent were primarily cared for by a parent during the hours their mother was working in 2011.ImportanceA substantial percentage of young children spend time in either center- or home-based child care. There is no conclusive evidence that child care, on average, is either better or worse for children than being cared for solely by a parent. However, researchers have found that consistent, developmentally sound, and emotionally supportive care has a positive effect on both children and families.1 In general, high quality child care is more beneficial for children’s cognitive, language, and social development than low quality child care.2,3,4 Low-income children who attend intensive, high-quality early education programs have greater school success, higher graduation rates, lower levels of juvenile crime, decreased need for special education services, and lower teen pregnancy rates than their peers.5,6 Nonetheless, no more than half of U.S. child care centers meet minimum American Public Health Association/ American Academy of Pediatrics (APHA/AAP) standards, with most rated poor to mediocre in quality.7 Cost may limit access to quality non-familial care. In many states, the cost to parents of early education is nearly twice as expensive as a year of tuition at a four-year public college.8
TrendsThe types of care employed mothers predominantly use by for their children (ages birth to four) have changed only slightly in the past 25 years. Between 1985 and 2011, the percent of these children whose primary caregiver during working hours was a parent has fluctuated between 22 and 29 percent. The proportion in center-based programs ranged from 23 to 30 percent between 1985 and 1997; more recently, it has increased from 23 to 26 percent between 1997 and 2011. The percentage of children who were cared for by a relative followed a generally upward trend between 1985 and 1999, going from 23 to 30 percent. However, this proportion has remained fairly steady for the past decade, between 25 and 27 percent. The strongest trend has been a consistent decrease in the percentage of children who were cared for by a non-relative at home, which declined from 28 to 14 percent between 1985 and 2011. (Figure 1) Trends in out-of-school care for older children (ages five to 14) whose mothers are employed are similar to those outlined above. The percentage who participated in enrichment activities has decreased since 1995. For instance, among 12- to 14-year-olds, the proportion fell from 41 percent in 1995 to 19 percent in 2010 (the latest data available). Since 1997, the proportion of grade-school students who spent some time caring for themselves has also decreased. In 1997, 48 percent of 12- to 14-year-olds, and 21 percent of nine- to eleven-year-olds, spent some time taking care of themselves while their mothers were working. In 2010, the percentages were 36 and 11 percent, respectively. (Appendix 2)
Differences by AgeAmong children not yet in school, the proportion in parental care only decreases as they get older, with 30 percent of children less than a year old cared for solely by a parent, and 22 percent of children at ages three to four. Care at home by a relative or non-relative shows a similar pattern, with 30 and 20 percent of children under a year old receiving at-home care by a relative or non-relative, respectively., Among children ages three to four, these figures are 22 and 11 percent, respectively. Use of center-based programs increases as children get older, with 15 percent of those under one year, 26 percent of those one to two years, and 30 percent of those three to four years in this type of care, in 2011. (Appendix 1) Among grade-schoolers, the proportion who spend some time taking care of themselves when their mother is at work and they are not in school increases with age. While only two percent of children ages five to eight take care of themselves, 11 percent of those ages nine to eleven, and 36 percent of those ages 12 to 14 do so. Out-of-school enrichment activities are most common among nine- to eleven-year-olds (21 percent), followed by 12- to 14-year-olds (19 percent). They were least common among five- to eight-year olds (14 percent). All other forms of care decrease in frequency with age. (Figure 2)
Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin9Among children ages birth through four whose mother is employed, black children are the least likely to be in parental care, at 17 percent, while Hispanic children are the most likely, at 29 percent. Black children are the most likely to be in center-based care, at 31 percent, while Hispanic children are the least likely, at 14 percent. Both black and Hispanic children are more likely to be in cared for by a relative in the home, at 35 and 36 percent, respectively, than are their white and Asian peers (at 24 and 25 percent, respectively). However, white and Asian children are more likely to be cared for in a home by a non-relative (at 16 and 15 percent, respectively), compared with 11 percent of Hispanic children and eight percent of black children who are cared for at home by a non-relative. (Figure 3)
Differences by Poverty StatusPoor and low-income children ages birth to four who have employed mothers are less likely to be in a center-based program than are children in families with incomes at least twice the federal poverty level (19 and 22 percent, respectively, versus 29 percent in 2011). This gap has fluctuated over time, but was largest in 2010. Poor and low-income children are more likely to be cared for by a relative at home than are children from families with higher incomes (33 and 30 percent, respectively, versus 25 percent, in 2011). Low-income children are more likely than either poor children or children in families with higher incomes to be cared for by a parent during working hours (31 percent, versus 26 and 21 percent, respectively). (Appendix 1)
Differences by Mother's EducationChildren whose mothers have less education are less likely to be in non-parental care during their mother’s working hours. Fifty-eight percent of children whose mothers lack a high school diploma, compared with 70 percent of those whose mothers have a college degree or more, use non-parental care as their primary form of childcare. Data for children cared for by a parent followed a different pattern in 2011, partially because a high proportion of mothers with little education reported no regular source of care: 19 percent of mothers with no high school diploma, compared with 9 to 11 percent of mothers with more education.10 Child care by a relative is used by 20 percent of mothers with a college education, and by 36 percent of mothers who have less than a high school education. Twelve percent of children whose mothers did not have a high school diploma primarily used center-based care, compared with 19 percent whose mothers had a high school diploma or GED, 22 percent of those whose mothers had some college, and 35 percent of those whose mother had at least a bachelor’s degree (in 2011). (Appendix 1)
Differences by Mother's Employment StatusAlthough data on child care arrangements for children of mothers who are not working are limited, some findings stand out. Among children ages birth to four who were not in school in 2011, 72 percent of those whose mothers were not working had no regular care arrangement,11 including 83 percent of those whose mother were not in the labor force, 51 percent of those whose mothers were looking for work, and 18 percent of those whose mothers were in school. Multiple care arrangements were present for four percent of those whose mothers were not in the labor force, 12 percent among those whose mothers were looking for work, and 30 percent of those whose mothers were in school. (Figure 4) In comparison, 12 percent of children of employed mothers had no regular care arrangement.12 Thirty-three percent of children with employed mothers were in center-based care, compared with 12 percent whose mothers were not employed.13 Eighteen percent of children ages birth to four were in multiple care arrangements: 27 percent of those with employed mothers, and eight percent of those whose mothers were not employed.14 Among children with employed mothers, the percent with multiple care arrangements ranged from 30 percent (among those whose mothers were employed part-time), to 24 percent (among those with self-employed mothers. (Figure 4)
State and Local EstimatesNone available.
International EstimatesKamerman, S. B. (2000). Early childhood education and care: An overview of developments in the OECD countries. International Journal of Education Research, 33, 7-79. (See Table 1.21)
National GoalsNone.
Related Indicators
DefinitionParental care is defined as care by a father or mother during the mother’s working hours. Non-parental care is defined as care in a home by either a relative (other than a parent, such as a sibling or grandparent) or non-relative (such as a nanny or home-based day-care), or care in a center-based program such as a day care center, pre-kindergarten, nursery school, Head Start, or other early childhood program. For children in kindergarten and beyond, non-parental care can also include self-care. Self-care is defined as looking after oneself regularly before or after school.
Data Sources
Raw Data SourceU.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation
Recommended citation: Child Trends (2013). Child Care. Retrieved from www.childtrendsdatabank.org/alphalist?q=node/97 Last update: April 2013
1Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care. (2005). Quality early education and child care from birth to kindergarten. Pediatrics, 115(1), 187-191. 2For a summary of the research on these issues, see National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2000). From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Child Development. Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development. J. P. Shonkoff & D. A. Phillips, Eds. Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. http://www.nap.edu/books/0309069882/html/ 3Peisner-Feinberg, E.S., Burchinal, M.R., Clifford, R.M., Culkin, M.L., Howes, C., Kagan, S.L., & Yazejian, N. (2001). The relation of preschool child-care quality to children's cognitive and social developmental trajectories through second grade. Child Development, 72(5), 1534-1553. 4National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network (2000). The relation of child care to cognitive and language development. Child Development, 71(4), 960-980. 5Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care. Op. cit. 6Campbell, F. A. (2000). Early learning, later success: The Abecedarian study: Executive summary. Chapel Hill, NC: Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center, University of North Carolina. Available: http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~abc/summary.cfm 7Patten, P. and Ricks, O.B. (2003). Child care quality: An overview for parents. Clearinghouse on Early Education and Parenting. Available: http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/2000/patten00.html 8Giannarelli, L., Barsirmantov, J. (2000). Child Care Expenses of America’s Families. Washington, DC: Urban Institute. Available: http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/310028_occa40.pdf 9Hispanics may be any race. Totals for whites and blacks do not include Hispanics. 10 U S Census Bureau. Table 1B: Child Care Arrangements of Preschoolers Under 5 Years Old Living with Mother, by Employment Status of Mother and Selected Characteristics: 2011. Who's Minding the Kids? Child Care Arrangements: Spring 2011 – Detailed Tables. Table 2B. Available at: http://www.census.gov/hhes/childcare/data/sipp/2011/tables.html 11Ibid. Table 1B. 12Ibid. Table 1B. . 13Ibid. Table 1B. 14Ibid. Table 1B.
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