Depressive Symptoms among Young Adults
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Headline

Among young adults ages 18 to 24 in 2004, 8 percent of those living below the poverty line reported suffering from two or more symptoms of depression in the past 30 days, compared with 5 percent of those young adults living at or above the poverty line. (See Figure 1)

Importance

Young adulthood is a time of great change for many people, and has been associated with greater mental health risks and higher levels of social stress than later in life.^1,2 The incidence of depression increases during adolescence and peaks in early adulthood.³ While the causality seems to be complex, unemployment, as well as unrewarding job environments, including employment that demands low levels of thinking, minimal skills and little autonomy (common features of many entry level jobs), has been linked with higher levels of depression among young adults.^4,5 Among young men, higher job status is associated with lower levels of depression, while among women, physically dangerous jobs are associated with higher levels of depression.⁶

In addition to changes in employment and schooling, early adulthood is often the time that people marry or begin to form families. While positive aspects of marriage often serve as protective factors from depression, new financial burdens, career demands, a poor adjustment to married life, and the birth of children among young couples can also lead to negative mental health outcomes, especially among women.⁷ Maternal depression can have implications for children, with research indicating that children of depressed mothers are more likely to act out (exhibit externalizing problem behaviors), which may be due to depression's negative effects on parenting practices.⁸ Finally, young adulthood is when people are legally allowed to start drinking. Young adults who engage in frequent drinking are more likely to experience depression.⁹

Young adults who suffer from depression are more likely to have problems with psychological and social functioning, interpersonal relationships, employment, and substance abuse, as well as be more dissatisfied with life.^10,11 They also show higher rates of absenteeism from work.¹² Adolescent depression is associated with higher levels of depression as young adults.¹³ Close relationships with mothers and a feeling of acceptance by parents during adolescence appear to be protective factors and are associated with lower likelihoods of experiencing depression in early adulthood.¹⁴

Trends

The percentage of young adults reporting symptoms of depression remained relatively constant between 1998 and 2004, between 4 percent and 5 percent among those ages 18 to 24 and between 3 percent and 5 percent among those ages 25 to 29. (See Table 1 and Table 2) In 2004, 5 percent of young adults ages 18 to 24 and 4 percent of adults ages 25 to 29 reported experiencing two or more symptoms of depression in the past 30 days.

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Differences by Age

Overall, young adults ages 18 to 24 are just slightly more likely than adults ages 25 to 29 to report depressive symptoms (5 percent versus 4 percent, respectively, in 2004). (See Table 1 and Table 2) However, among certain groups, the prevalence of depressive symptoms actually increases with age. For example, among those in families receiving TANF or welfare benefits, 8 percent of 18- to 24-year olds reported depressive symptoms, compared with 13 percent of 25- to 29-year olds.

Differences by Gender

Females are more likely than males to report symptoms of depression, a gap that widens at older ages. In 2004, 6 percent of women ages 18 to 24 and women ages 25 to 29 reported depressive symptoms, compared with 5 percent of men ages 18 to 24 and 2 percent of men ages 25 to 29. (See Figure 2)

Differences by Poverty

Young adults living in families with incomes below the poverty line or receiving welfare are more likely than their more affluent peers to suffer from depressive symptoms. Among young adults ages 18 to 24 in 2004, 8 percent of those living below the poverty line reported suffering from two or more symptoms of depression, compared with 5 percent of those young adults living at or above the poverty line. (See Figure 1) This disparity increases with age, as 9 percent of adults ages 25 to 29 living below the poverty line reported symptoms of depression, compared with only 4 percent of those adults living at or above the poverty line. Similar patterns can be found based on welfare and food stamp receipt.

Differences by Education Level

Adults with higher levels of education are less likely than other adults to suffer from depression. In 2004, 3 percent of young adults ages 18 to 24 with at least a bachelor's degree reported symptoms of depression, compared with 7 percent of young adults with less than a high school degree. Patterns were similar for adults ages 25 to 29. (See Figure 3)

Differences by Employment Status

Young adults who are working are less likely to suffer from depression. These differences increase with age. In 2004, 18- to 24-year olds who were not working were only modestly more likely than those who were working to report symptoms of depression (6 percent versus 5 percent, respectively). However, 25- to 29-year olds who were not employed were more than twice as likely as 25- to 29-year olds who were working to report depressive symptoms (7 percent versus 3 percent, respectively, in 2004). (See Figure 4)

Differences by Marital Status

In 2004, 8 percent of young adults ages 18 to 24 who were cohabiting with a partner reported depressive symptoms, compared with 3 percent of married young adults, and 5 percent of young adults who are widowed, separated, divorced, or have never been married. (See Table 1) Differences are not as consistent among adults ages 25 to 29. (See Table 2)

Differences by Own Children

In 2004, among those with their own children, 7 percent of young adults ages 18 to 24 and 5 percent of young adults ages 25 to 29 reported symptoms of depression compared with 5 percent and 4 percent, respectively, among those with no children. (See Table 1 and Table 2)

Related Indicators

Adolescents Who Feel Sad or Hopeless, Parental Symptoms of Depression

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State and Local Estimates

None available

International Estimates

None available

National Goals

Through its Healthy People 2010 initiative, the federal government has outlined a goal to increase treatment received out of those adults with depression.

More information available at:
http://www.health.gov/healthypeople/document/html/objectives/18-09.htm

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What Works: Programs and Interventions that May Influence this Indicator

None available at this time

Research References

¹Turner, R. Jay and Avison, William R. (2003). "Status Variations in Stress Exposure Among Young Adults: Implications for the Interpretation of Prior Research." Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44:488-505.

²Gore, Susan, Aseltine, Robert H., Jr. (2003). "Race and Ethnic Differences in Depressed Mood Following the Transition from High School". Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3):370-89

³Pine DS, Cohen E, Cohen P, Brook J. (1999). "Adolescent depressive symptoms as predictors of adult depression: moodiness or mood disorder?" Am J Psychiatry,156:133-135.

⁴Wiesner, Margit, Windle, Michael, Freeman, Amy. (2005). "Work Stress, Substance Use, and Depression Among Young Adult Workers: An Examination of Main and Moderator Effect Model." Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(2):83-96.

⁵Zimmerman, Frederick J., Christakis, Dimitri A., Stoep, Ann Vander. (2004). "Tinker, tailor, soldier, patient: Work attributes and depression disparities among young adults". Social Science & Medicine, 58(10): 1889-1901.

⁶Zimmerman, Frederick J., Christakis, Dimitri A., Stoep, Ann Vander. (2004). "Tinker, tailor, soldier, patient: Work attributes and depression disparities among young adults". Social Science & Medicine, 58(10): 1889-1901.

⁷Horwitz, Allan V., McLaughlin;, Julie, Raskin White, Helene. (1998). "How the Negative and Positive Aspects of Partner Relationships Affect the Mental Health of Young Married People". Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 392: 124-136.

⁸Moore, Kristin Anderson, Hair, Elizabeth C., Vandivere, Sharon, McPhee, Cameron B., Thomson, Ling, and McNamara, Michelle. (forthcoming). "Depression Among Moms: Prevalence, Predictors, and Outcomes for Children." Research Brief, Publication #2006-1. Washington, DC: Child Trends.

⁹Haarasilta, Linnea M., Marttunen, Mauri J., Kaprio, Jaakko A. (2004). "Correlates of depression in a representative nationwide sample of adolescents (15-19 years) and young adults (20-24 years)". European Journal of Public Health, 14(3): 280-285.

¹⁰Aalto-Setälä, Terhi, Marttunen, Mauri, Tuulio-Henriksson, Annamari, Poikolainen, Kari and Lönnqvist, Jouko. (2002). "Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence as Predictors of Early Adulthood Depressive Disorders and Maladjustment." Am J Psychiatry, 159: 1235-1237.

¹¹Van Voorhees, Benjamin W.,MD, MPH, Fogel, Joshua,PhD, Houston, Thomas K., MD, MPH, Cooper, Lisa A.,MD, MPH, Wang, Nae-Yuh, PhD, Ford, Daniel E., MD, MPH. "Beliefs and Attitudes Associated With the Intention to Not Accept the Diagnosis of Depression Among Young Adults". Available online at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/498574

¹²Greener, Mark J., Guest, Julian F. (2005). "Do Antidepressants Reduce the Burden Imposed by Depression on Employers?" . CNS Drugs, 19(3): 253-264.

¹³Turner, Heather A.; Butler, Melissa J. (2003). "Direct and Indirect Effects of Childhood Adversity on Depressive Symptoms in Young Adults". Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(2):89-103.

¹⁴Jones, Deborah J.; Forehand, Rex; Beach, Steven R. H. (2000). "Maternal and paternal parenting during adolescence: forecasting early adult psychosocial adjustment." Adolescence, 35(139):513-30.

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Definition

Young adults are considered to exhibit symptoms of depression if they responded "all of the time" or "most of the time" to at least two of the following questions: How often during the past 30 days did you feel...