Parental Symptoms of Depression
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Headline

Twenty percent of parents living in households receiving welfare showed symptoms of depression in the year 2004, compared with 4 percent of parents in families that did not receive welfare. (See Figure 3)

Importance

Children of depressed mothers are more likely than other children to have behavior problems, ^1,2 academic difficulties, and health problems.³ Among families receiving welfare, children of depressed mothers have, on average, lower scores than other children on math achievement tests.⁴ Depression among mothers has also been linked to delays in cognitive and motor development among children ages 28 to 50 months.⁵ Long-term, severe maternal depression has been found to have especially adverse consequences for child development and behavior.^6,7 Among five-year old children of depressed mothers, for example, those whose mothers experienced frequent and/or severe depression were more likely than others to have behavioral problems and lower vocabulary scores.⁸

Depressed mothers are also more likely than other mothers to have poorer parenting skills and to be more negative in their interactions with their children.⁹ Mothers who are depressed have been shown to be less likely to use appropriate practices to prevent injury and harm among their children (such as car seat use, covering electrical plugs, and having syrup of ipecac in the home).¹⁰ Some research has found that the effects of maternal depression on child outcomes can be moderated by higher levels of maternal sensitivity,¹¹ suggesting that policies aimed not only at reducing parental depression but also at increasing parental sensitivity may be effective in improving child outcomes.

There is little research on the effects of father depression on child well-being. One recent study, however, found that depressed fathers were less likely to engage their child in activities and more likely to exhibit paternal stress/aggravation in parenting.¹² Research on the children of depressed mothers has found that having a father who is also depressed predicts to worse outcomes for children and adolescents in addition to the effect of maternal depression.¹³

Trends

In 2004, 5 percent of all parents living with their children exhibited multiple symptoms related to depression. (See Table 1) Since 1998 (the first year for which estimates are available), there has been no significant change in this proportion.

Differences by Gender

Female parents are more likely to show symptoms of depression than male parents. In 2004, 6 percent of female parents exhibited symptoms of depression compared with 3 percent of male parents. (See Figure 1)

Differences by Education

Parents with higher levels of education are less likely than others to show symptoms of depression. In 2004, for example, 2 percent of parents with a bachelor's degree or higher exhibited such symptoms, compared with 8 percent of those lacking a high school diploma. (See Figure 2)

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Differences by Receipt of Welfare

Parents living in households that received welfare are far more likely than others to report symptoms of depression. Twenty percent of parents living in households receiving welfare showed symptoms of depression in the year 2004, compared with 4 percent of parents in families that did not receive welfare. (See Figure 3) Similar patterns follow by food stamp receipt (15 percent versus 4 percent, respectively, in 2004). (See Table 1)

Related Indicators

Heavy Drinking Among Parents, Parental Warmth and Affection

State and Local Estimates

None Available

International Estimates

None Available

National Goals

Through its Healthy People 2010 initiative, the federal government has outlined a goal to increase the percentage of adults with depression who receive treatment.

More information available at: http://www.health.gov/healthypeople/document/html/objectives/18-09.htm

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What Works: Programs and Interventions that May Influence this Indicator

Click here to view examples of programs and interventions that research has evaluated for this indicator. View programs

Research References

¹Dawson, Geraldine, Ashman, Sharon B., Panagiotides, et al. (2003). "Preschool Outcomes of Children of Depressed Mothers: Role of Maternal Behavior, Contextual Risk, and Children's Brain Activity". Child Development, 74(4): 1158-1175. Abstract available at: http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-8624.00599.

²Moore, Kristin Anderson, Hair, Elizabeth C., Vandivere, Sharon, McPhee, Cameron B., Thomson, Ling, and McNamara, Michelle. (2006). "Depression Among Moms: Prevalence, Predictors, and Outcomes for Children." Research Brief, Publication #2006-1. Washington, DC: Child Trends. http://www.childtrends.org/Files/MomDepressionRB.pdf

³Ahluwalia, S.K., McGroder, S.M., Zaslow, M., and Hair, E.C. (2001). Symptoms of depression among welfare recipients: A concern for two generations. Child Trends Research Brief, December 2001. Child Trends: Washington, D.C. Available at: http://www.childtrends.org/Files/Research__Brief_Depression.pdf.

⁴Hair, E.C., McGroder, S.M., Zaslow, M., Ahluwalia, Surjeet, and Moore, K.A. (2002) How do maternal risk factors affect children in low-income families? Further evidence of two-generational implications. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, Vol. 23, No.12, 2002, pp. 65-94 and The Transition from Welfare to Work: Processes, Challenges, and Outcomes (ed: Sharon Telleen, and Judith V. Sayad) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2002, pp. 65-94.

⁵Petterson, S.M. and Albers, A.B. (2001) Effects of poverty and maternal depression on early child development. Child Development, November/December 2001, Vol. 72, Number 6, pp 1794-1813. Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. Access to issue available for purchase online at: http://www.srcd.org/subinfo.html.

⁶Ibid.

⁷Brennan, P.A., Andersen, M.J. Najman. J.M., Williams, G.M., Hammen, C., and Bor, W. (2000). Chronicity, severity, and timing of maternal depressive symptoms: relationships with child outcomes at age 5. Developmental Psychology, 36(6): 759-766. American Psychological Association.

⁸Ibid.

⁹Hops, H. (1995). Age- and gender-specific effects of parental depression: A commentary. Developmental Psychology, 31(3): 428-431.

¹⁰McLennan, J.D. and Kotelchuck, M. (2000). Parental prevention practices for young children in the context of maternal depression. Pediatrics. Vol. 105, No. 5. pp 1090-1095. American Academy of Pediatrics. Access to article available for purchase online at: http://www.pediatrics.org/

¹¹NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, (1999). Chronicity of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and child functioning at 36 months. Developmental Psychology, 35(5): 1297-1310. American Psychological Association.

¹²Bronte-Tinkew, Jacinta, Moore, Kristin Anderson, Matthews, Gregory., Carrano, Jennifer. (2005). "Major Depression in a Sample of Fathers: Socio-Demographic Correlates and Links to Fathers' Involvement in Families." Child Trends: Washington, DC, Unpublished paper.

¹³For a review of that literature see Goodman, S.H., and Ian Gotlib. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review. Volume 106(3) 458-490.

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Definition

Parents are considered to exhibit symptoms of depression if they responded "all of the time" or "most of the time" to at least two of the following questions: How often during the past 30 days did you feel…

1) So sad that nothing could cheer you up;
2) Nervous;
3) Hopeless;
4) Worthless;
5) Restless;
6) That everything was an effort

Note: The National Center for Health Statistics, in partnership with Harvard Medical School, conducted a validity study to determine appropriate cut points for these measures. The results from this study are available at: http://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/ncs/k6_scales.php

Also, please note that this definition does not constitute a definition of clinical depression, and these self-report data should not be taken to indicate levels of clinical depression in the population. Nevertheless, the relative incidence across subgroups is meaningful and in accord with the research discussed above.

Data Source

Original analysis by Child Trends of National Health Interview Survey data, 1998-2003

Raw Data Source

National Health Interview Survey
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhis.htm

Approximate Date of Next Update

Winter 2007

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