Figure 1: Living Arrangements of Children, 1970-2008
Table 1: Living Arrangements of Children, 1970-2008
Table 2: Children Living in the Home of Their Grandparents, 1970-2008
Figure 2: Living Arrangements of Children, by Race & Hispanic Origin, 1970-2008
Table 3: Percentage of Men and Women Currently Cohabiting, By Selected Characteristics, 2002
Headline
Following decades of decline, the proportion of children living with both parents has remained relatively stable over the last decade, dropping modestly from 69 percent in 2000 to 67 percent in 2008. (See Figure 1)
Importance
Both mothers and fathers play important roles in the growth and development of children. The number and the type of parents (e.g., biological, step) in the household, as well as the relationship between the parents, are strongly linked to a child’s well-being.1 (Nationally representative data on adoptive families are relatively new, and warrant a separate treatment.2)
Among young children, for example, those living with no biological parents or in single-parent households are less likely than children with two biological parents to exhibit behavioral self-control, and more likely to be exposed to high levels of aggravated parenting, than are children living with two biological parents.3 Among children in two-parent families, those living with both biological parents in a low-conflict marriage tend to do better on a host of outcomes than those living in step-parent families. Outcomes for children in step-parent families are in many cases similar to those for children growing up in single-parent families.4,5 Children whose parents are divorced also have lower academic performance, social achievement, and psychological adjustment than children with married parents.6 Reliance on kin networks (for example, living with grandparents) can provide social and financial support for some families, particularly single-parent families. However, the evidence suggests that children living in households with their single mothers in some cases fare better, and in other cases worse, when also living with a grandparent.7
Single-parent families tend to have much lower incomes than do two-parent families, while cohabiting families fall in-between. Research indicates, however, that the income differential only partially accounts for the negative effects on many areas of child and youth well-being (including health, educational attainment and assessments, behavior problems, and psychological well-being) associated with living outside of a married two-parent family.8,9
Trends
From 1970 to 19968, the proportion of all children under age 18 who were living with two married parents decreased steadily from 85 to 68 percent. This share stabilized during the late 1990s, and was 67 percent in 2008. (See Figure 1)
Since 1970, the proportion of children living in mother-only families increased from 11 to a high of 24 percent by 1997, and in 2008 was 23 percent. Between 1970 and 2008, the share of children living in father-only families increased from one to four percent. The fraction living without either parent (with other relatives or with non-relatives) has remained steady at around three percent. (See Figure 1)
In 2008, six percent of all children lived in the home of their grandparents. In more than half of these families one or both parents were also present. (See Table 2)
Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin
Black children are significantly less likely than other children to be living with two married parents. In 2008, 35 percent of black children were living with two parents, compared with 84 percent of Asian children, 75 percent of non-Hispanic white children, and 64 percent of Hispanic children. (See Table 1)
In 2008, eight percent of all black children did not live with either parent, compared with four percent of Hispanic children, three percent of white children, and two percent of Asian children. (See Figure 2)
State and Local Estimates
State and local estimates for children’s living arrangements are available using the KIDS COUNT Census Data Online.
International Estimates
Data for selected countries (1980-2007) are available in the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2009 Statistical Abstract. See here. Table 1293.
National Goals
Federal welfare reform under the “Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996,” specifically encouraged the promotion of marriage and two-parent families as a means of reducing welfare dependence. For additional information see here.
For this indicator, unless otherwise specified, a two-parent family refers to parents who are married to each other and living in the same household. They may be biological, adoptive, or stepparents. The Current Population Survey identifies all parents who are family or subfamily heads. Where cohabitants are concerned, however, the CPS does not ask whether that person is also the parent of the child. Single-parent families refer primarily to families in which only one parent is present, but may include some families where both parents are present but unmarried. No-parent families refer to families where neither parent of the child lives in the household. Data about those children living with grandparents reflect those children living in the homes of their grandparents. Parents may or may not be present in such cases.
Data Sources
Data for 2004-2008: Child Trends calculations of U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement. "America's Families and Living Arrangements". Tables C-2, C-3. Available at: http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam/.html
All other data for 2003: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. America’s Children in Brief: Key National Indicators of Well-Being, 2004: Table ECON2. Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. http://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/soc/ac04brief.pdf
Data for 2002: Child Trends calculations using Fields, Jason. 2003. Children's Living Arrangements and Characteristics: March 2002. Current Population Reports, P20-547. U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC. http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam/cps2002.html Data for 2000 adopted children and stepchildren: Kreider, Rose M. 2003. Adopted Children and Stepchildren: 2000, Census 2000 Special Reports. CESR-6RV. U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, D.C.http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/censr-6.pdf
1Amato, Paul R., (2005). “The Impact of Family Formation Change on the Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Well-Being of the Next Generation.” The Future of Children, 15 (2), Fall 2005. 2For a first nationally representative look at adopted children and their families, see Vandivere, S., Malm, K., and Radel, L. Adoption USA: A chartbook based on the National Survey of Adoptive Parents. Available at http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/09/NSAP/chartbook/. 3Manning, Wendy D. and Kathleen A. Lamb. (2003). Adolescent well-being in cohabiting, married, and single-parent families. Journal of Marriage and the Family 65(4) 876-893. 4Child Trends, (2002). "Marriage from a Child’s Perspective: How Does Family Structure Affect Children, and What Can We Do about It?" (Research Brief). Kristin Anderson Moore, Susan M. Jekielek, and Carol Emig. http://www.childtrends.org/Files/MarriageRB602.pdf 5Manning, Wendy D. and Kathleen A. Lamb. 6Amato, Paul R., (2001). “The Consequences of Divorce for Adults and Children.” In Robert M. Milardo (ed.), Understanding Families into the New Millennium: A Decade in Review. (Lawrence, KS: National Council on Family Relations): 488-506. 7Dunifon, R. & Kowaleski-Jones, L. (2007). The influence of grandparents in single-mother families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(2), 465-48. 8Brown, Susan L. (2004). Family Structure and Child Well-Being: The Significance of Parental Cohabitation. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 66(2): 351-67. 9The Urban Institute. (2006). Parents and Children Facing a World of Risk: Next Steps Towards a Working Families Agenda. http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/311288_parents_and_children.pdf .
